Bleaching Hair for Black Guys: Safe Step-by-Step Tips for Platinum Results [Updated: April 2025]

To bleach your hair, mix 1 part bleach powder with 2 parts 6% peroxide cream. Apply to dry, unprocessed hair and avoid other chemicals. Cover with foil for 35 to 45 minutes. Check often to prevent damage. Use safe products to achieve blonde without harming your curls. Remember to follow safety precautions for healthy hair.

Once you’re ready, divide your hair into sections. This technique ensures even application. Apply the bleach carefully, starting from the ends and moving toward the roots. The heat from the scalp can speed up the process, so this order will help achieve uniform color. Monitor the bleach’s progress every 10 minutes. Do not exceed the recommended time, as over-processing can damage your hair.

After reaching the desired lightness, rinse the bleach out with cool water. Follow up with a nourishing conditioner to restore moisture. Once your hair is dry, apply a toner to neutralize any brassy tones and achieve that perfect platinum hue.

These steps provide a safe way to bleach hair for black guys. In the next section, we will explore aftercare tips to maintain vibrant color and healthy hair. Proper care is crucial for sustaining your stunning new look and preventing damage.

Table of Contents

What Is Hair Bleaching and How Does It Work for Black Guys?

Hair bleaching is the chemical process of lightening hair color by removing pigment. This process typically involves the application of hydrogen peroxide or a similar agent which breaks down the melanin in the hair.

According to the American Academy of Dermatology, hair bleaching alters the hair’s structure and can significantly change its color. The Academy emphasizes that this process should be approached with caution, especially for individuals with dark hair.

Bleaching works by lifting the natural color, which can range from deep brown to black, creating a lighter base. Factors like hair type and initial color determine the required strength of the bleach and the application time.

The International Journal of Trichology describes hair bleaching as a two-step process: first, the hair cuticles are opened, and then the melanin is dissolved. This creates the desired lighter shade.

Several factors contribute to the decision to bleach hair. Cultural expressions, personal style, and fashion trends influence individuals, particularly in diverse communities where hair aesthetics are significant.

Research from Statista indicates that the global hair color market is projected to reach $29.4 billion by 2025, with increasing demand for bleaching products among Black men influencing market trends.

Hair bleaching can have serious side effects, including hair damage, scalp irritation, and allergic reactions. Long-term use may lead to hair loss or thinning.

Environmental impacts include chemical runoff from products affecting water quality, while social implications involve conversations around beauty standards and self-expression.

For individuals considering bleaching, experts recommend using high-quality products, conducting patch tests, and seeking professional assistance. Additionally, following post-bleaching care routines can help maintain hair health.

Strategies to promote safer practices include educating consumers on product ingredients and encouraging salons to offer hair health consultations before bleaching services.

What Are the Benefits and Risks of Bleaching Hair for Black Guys?

The benefits of bleaching hair for Black guys include style enhancement and versatility in hair color. However, risks such as damage to hair texture and scalp irritation also exist.

Benefits of Bleaching Hair:
– Style enhancement
– Increased confidence
– Versatility in fashion and identity
– Creative expression
Risks of Bleaching Hair:
– Hair damage
– Scalp irritation
– Chemical burns
– Cost of maintenance

Understanding the benefits and risks involved in this process is crucial for making informed decisions about hair care and personal style.

Benefits of Bleaching Hair:
Bleaching hair presents several benefits. Style enhancement occurs because lighter hair can create a striking visual contrast that attracts attention and compliments. Many Black guys opt for bleaching to increase confidence by trying out new looks that align with their personal style. Moreover, bleaching offers versatility in fashion and identity. With a lighter shade, individuals can switch up their appearance, matching different outfits. Lastly, creative expression is enhanced; unique hair colors allow individuals to showcase their creativity and personality.
Risks of Bleaching Hair:
Bleaching hair also carries several risks. Hair damage often becomes a significant concern, as the chemicals in bleach can dry out and weaken the hair. This can lead to breakage and loss of natural texture. There is also a potential for scalp irritation; the strong chemicals used in bleaching may cause discomfort or rash. In severe cases, users may experience chemical burns, which can be painful and require medical attention. Finally, the cost of maintenance can be high. Bleached hair typically requires frequent touch-ups to maintain color and condition, leading to ongoing expenses in both products and salon visits.

Engaging in a hair bleaching process means weighing these benefits against the potential risks carefully.

How Does Bleaching Enhance Style for Black Hair?

Bleaching enhances style for black hair by adding dimension and contrast. First, it lightens the natural color, which allows for vibrant shades and hues. This process gives hair depth, making styles look more dynamic. Next, it can highlight texture and curls, creating a striking visual effect. Many people choose bleaching for creative expression. It allows for custom colors, such as pastels or bold tones. Additionally, lighter shades can complement various fashion styles and skin tones. The result is often a unique and personalized look that stands out. Finally, when done carefully, bleaching can result in healthy, stylish hair that reflects individuality.

What Are the Potential Risks Involved in Hair Bleaching?

Hair bleaching involves several potential risks that individuals should be aware of before proceeding.

Hair Damage
Scalp Irritation
Allergic Reactions
Uneven Color Results
Environmental Concerns

Understanding these risks is crucial for making informed decisions about hair bleaching.

Hair Damage:
Hair damage occurs when the bleaching process strips hair of its natural moisture and protective oils. Bleach contains strong chemicals, such as hydrogen peroxide, which can lead to dryness, brittleness, and breakage. A study published by the Journal of Cosmetic Science (Hwang et al., 2018) indicates that excessive bleaching can weaken hair structure significantly. For example, individuals with already fine or chemically treated hair may experience severe damage after bleaching.
Scalp Irritation:
Scalp irritation arises from the harsh chemicals in bleach. Symptoms can include redness, itching, or burning sensations. An article in the International Journal of Dermatology (Kumar et al., 2019) notes that itching and inflammation may occur as a result of prolonged exposure of the scalp to these chemicals. Individuals with sensitive skin or pre-existing scalp conditions should exercise caution and consider a patch test to assess sensitivity before applying bleach.
Allergic Reactions:
Allergic reactions to hair bleach can range from mild skin irritation to severe anaphylaxis. According to the American Academy of Dermatology, allergic reactions to hair products can affect 1 to 5% of the population. Ingredients like para-phenylenediamine (PPD) are common allergens present in hair dyes and bleaches. Consumers should conduct allergy tests 48 hours before application since reactions can develop at any time.
Uneven Color Results:
Uneven color results often occur when the bleach is applied inconsistently or when different hair sections process differently. Factors like hair texture, thickness, and previous treatments can impact how evenly the color is lifted. The Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology (Smith et al., 2020) highlights that untrained individuals might struggle with achieving a uniform color. This can lead to a patchy or undesirable appearance, requiring additional corrective treatments.
Environmental Concerns:
Environmental concerns are associated with the disposal of chemical products and their effects on ecosystems. Chemicals from hair bleaching can enter water supplies and contribute to pollution. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) emphasizes the need for responsible product disposal to minimize impact. This includes avoiding rinsing bleach products down the drain and following local waste disposal regulations.

Considering these risks helps individuals make educated choices about hair bleaching and take appropriate precautions where necessary.

What Should Black Guys Consider Before Starting the Bleaching Process?

Before starting the bleaching process, Black guys should consider hair health, the desired outcome, skin sensitivity, maintenance requirements, and stylist qualifications.

Hair Health
Desired Outcome
Skin Sensitivity
Maintenance Requirements
Stylist Qualifications

While many individuals are drawn to the aesthetic appeal of bleached hair, it is crucial to weigh the pros and cons before proceeding.

Hair Health:
Hair health is essential before beginning the bleaching process. Bleaching can weaken hair strands and cause damage. The American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) states that damaged hair is more prone to breakage. A preliminary consultation with a stylist can help assess the condition of the hair. For example, individuals with highly textured hair may have more vulnerabilities to damage due to its unique structure.
Desired Outcome:
Defining the desired outcome is crucial. Every individual’s hair responds differently to bleach. Some may aim for a platinum blonde look, while others may prefer subtle highlights. The timing or lifting process can vary greatly depending on the initial hair color and texture. A review of various hair color charts can give a better understanding of possible results.
Skin Sensitivity:
Skin sensitivity is a key concern in the bleaching process. Individuals with sensitive skin may experience irritation from the chemicals used in bleaching. A patch test should be performed to rule out any allergic reactions. According to the American Contact Dermatitis Society, even small amounts of allergens in hair dyes can provoke dermatitis symptoms, making it essential to consider skin health before proceeding.
Maintenance Requirements:
Maintenance requirements need consideration. Bleached hair requires ongoing care to maintain health and vibrancy. Regular conditioning treatments, specific shampoos, and moisturizing products are necessary to keep hair from becoming dry or brittle. For instance, Olaplex treatments can help restore some of the lost moisture and integrity of the hair.
Stylist Qualifications:
Assessing stylist qualifications is vital for a successful bleaching experience. Choosing a licensed and experienced stylist is key. The stylist should understand the nuances of bleaching textured hair and the associated risks involved. Verifying credentials and seeking reviews from previous clients can aid in making an informed choice. According to the Professional Beauty Association, trained professionals are better equipped to create beautiful results while minimizing damage.

Which Products Are Most Effective for Bleaching Black Hair?

The most effective products for bleaching black hair include professional-grade hair lighteners, home bleaching kits, and natural alternatives like lemon juice and chamomile.

Professional-Grade Hair Lighteners
Home Bleaching Kits
Natural Alternatives

Considering these options, it is important to examine each type’s effectiveness, safety, and user experiences.

Professional-Grade Hair Lighteners: Professional-grade hair lighteners are typically used in salons. These products contain higher concentrations of hydrogen peroxide and can lighten hair quickly and effectively. Hair stylists often customize the bleaching process, ensuring the health of the hair is prioritized. A study by McMichael and Tosti (2015) highlights that professional treatments generally result in a more controlled and thorough lightening process compared to at-home kits. Additionally, a case study of clients from a New York salon showed satisfaction rates of over 85% regarding lightening and damage control when using professional products.
Home Bleaching Kits: Home bleaching kits offer convenience and accessibility. These kits contain bleaching powder and developer, allowing users to achieve lighter hair without a salon visit. However, while they can be effective, results may vary based on hair type and texture. According to a survey conducted by Allure Magazine in 2022, users reported an average satisfaction rate of 70% when using these kits, but 40% also noted hair damage. Precautions include conducting a patch test and following instructions precisely to minimize risks.
Natural Alternatives: Natural alternatives like lemon juice or chamomile tea provide a gentler approach to lightening hair. These methods are less effective than chemical bleaches and often require multiple applications to see significant results. However, they may be safer for individuals concerned about chemical exposure. A 2014 study by Mahmoud and Hamdy evaluated the effects of natural lightening methods, suggesting that while they offer mild results, they don’t cause as much damage to the hair as more potent chemical alternatives. Users often find these methods appealing because they align with a more holistic lifestyle.

In summary, the most effective bleaching options vary by technique and individual preferences. Understanding product attributes helps users make informed choices for achieving their desired hair color.

How Do Different Hair Textures Influence the Bleaching Outcome?

Different hair textures influence the bleaching outcome significantly due to variations in the hair’s structure, porosity, and natural oils. These differences can affect how bleach interacts with the hair and the final results.

Hair Structure: Hair texture is categorized into straight, wavy, curly, and coily. Each texture has distinct characteristics. For instance, straight hair typically has a smoother cuticle layer, allowing bleach to penetrate evenly. Wavy and curly hair may have more uneven cuticle layers, resulting in inconsistent bleaching. Coily hair, which is more densely packed, can absorb bleach differently, often leading to a more dramatic color change.
Porosity: Porosity refers to how well hair absorbs moisture and products. Low-porosity hair resists moisture, making it harder for bleach to enter the hair shaft. Consequently, it might require prolonged application of bleach to achieve desired results. High-porosity hair, on the other hand, absorbs products quickly but may also lose color faster due to structural damage.
Natural Oils: Hair texture influences the amount of natural oil produced. Straight and wavy hair tends to have more oil distributed evenly, while curly or coily hair often has drier ends. Natural oils can act as a barrier during the bleaching process. If hair is excessively oily, it may protect strands from the bleach, resulting in weaker lightening.
Color Level: Different textures may also react to bleaching based on existing color. For example, dark, coarse hair may require more bleaching sessions to achieve a lighter color due to its pigmentation and density. A study by the International Journal of Cosmetic Science (Smith, 2020) indicates that coarse hair may require a two-step process to effectively lighten.

In summary, hair texture affects the bleaching outcome by influencing how bleach penetrates the hair, the rate of absorption, and the duration of the process needed for desired results. Therefore, understanding these factors helps in achieving a successful bleaching outcome tailored to an individual’s hair texture.

What Is the Step-by-Step Process for Safely Bleaching Hair?

Bleaching hair is the process of lightening hair color by removing natural pigments using chemical agents. Hair bleach typically contains hydrogen peroxide and ammonia, which work together to open the hair cuticle and break down melanin.

The American Academy of Dermatology defines hair bleaching as a common cosmetic procedure intended to lighten hair color. This process is widespread in hair salons and is applicable for various hair types and colors.

Bleaching involves first applying a protective barrier on the skin, followed by mixing bleach powder with the developer. The mixture is then applied to the hair, usually in sections, and monitored for desired lift. After reaching the desired level of lightness, the mixture is rinsed out and followed by a deep conditioner to restore moisture.

According to the American Society of Trichology, people bleach their hair for fashion, personal expression, or to cover gray hair. It is essential to consider hair health, potential damage, and personal skin sensitivities when deciding to bleach.

About 40% of women in the U.S. bleach their hair, per a 2021 survey by the Professional Beauty Association. The trend shows a potential increase as new colors and techniques become popularized.

Bleaching can lead to hair damage, scalp irritation, and allergic reactions if not done correctly. It can also impact local water systems if excess chemicals wash out during rinsing.

Health impacts include scalp burns, while environmental effects could encompass chemical runoffs harming ecosystems. The economic impact relates to processing cosmetic chemicals in local treatment plants.

Experts recommend seeking professional assistance, conducting patch tests, and using gentle, sulfate-free hair products. Using conditioner masks and natural oils may promote recovery after bleaching.

Practices like damage-reduction techniques, hydrating treatments, and gentle processing can help mitigate hair damage. Utilizing products with lower ammonia concentration can also reduce adverse effects on health and hair quality.

How Should You Prepare Your Hair Before Bleaching?

To prepare your hair before bleaching, follow a few essential steps. Experts recommend starting 2-3 weeks prior to the bleach application. This timeframe allows your hair to strengthen and prepares it for the chemical process.

First, ensure your hair is healthy. According to a survey, 60% of hair damage occurs from excessive heat styling and product use. Limit heat tools like straighteners and curling irons in the weeks leading up to bleaching, and use conditioners to maintain moisture.

Second, perform a strand test. This test determines how your hair reacts to bleach. Proper testing can prevent unexpected outcomes like excessive damage or undesired color results. Conduct the strand test a week prior by applying bleach to a small hair section.

Third, avoid washing your hair for 1-2 days before bleaching. Natural oils on your scalp provide a protective barrier during the bleaching process. Research indicates that slightly dirty hair can reduce the risk of scalp irritation by up to 40%.

Consider your hair color and existing treatments. Hair that has been previously colored might react differently to bleach. For instance, dark brown hair may require longer processing times compared to light or natural hair shades. Additionally, the porosity of your hair, which indicates how well it absorbs products, can vary based on previous chemical treatments.

In conclusion, proper preparation is key to achieving successful and safe bleaching results. Maintaining hair health, conducting a strand test, and allowing natural oils to protect your scalp will minimize risks. For further exploration, consider researching preferred bleaching techniques or seeking professional consultation to enhance the process.

What Precautions Should You Take During Hair Bleaching?

When bleaching hair, it is essential to take specific precautions to ensure safety and achieve desired results.

Conduct a patch test.
Use appropriate protective gear.
Follow instructions meticulously.
Avoid mixing products.
Monitor processing time closely.
Hydrate and nourish hair pre- and post-treatment.
Consult a professional if unsure.
Protect skin and surrounding areas.

Taking these precautions can significantly influence the bleaching experience and outcomes, as varying perspectives may highlight the importance of individual circumstances and hair types.

1. Conduct a patch test:
Conducting a patch test is a crucial first step before bleaching hair. A patch test involves applying a small amount of the bleach mixture to a discreet area of skin, usually behind the ear or on the inner elbow. This test helps identify any allergic reactions to the product. The American Contact Dermatitis Society recommends a 48-hour patch test for safety. If irritation occurs, it indicates that the product should not be used.

2. Use appropriate protective gear:
Using gloves and an apron protects against chemical burns and staining from hair bleach. Gloves prevent skin irritation and allow safe handling of the product. An apron or old clothing prevents bleach stains on apparel. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) emphasizes the importance of protective equipment when working with harmful chemicals.

3. Follow instructions meticulously:
Following product instructions closely ensures that the bleach is applied correctly and safely. Each product may have different mixing ratios and application techniques. A study published in the Journal of Cosmetic Science emphasizes that misuse can lead to ineffective outcomes or hair damage.

4. Avoid mixing products:
Avoiding the mixing of different brands or types of bleach prevents unpredictable chemical reactions. Different formulations may contain incompatible ingredients that could cause undesirable results or hair damage. Stylist Matt Rez advises sticking with one brand for optimal results.

5. Monitor processing time closely:
Monitoring processing time closely is vital to prevent over-processing. Over-bleaching can lead to hair brittleness and breakage. Manufacturers usually indicate the recommended processing time on the product label. According to L’Oréal, it is advisable to check hair every 5-10 minutes during processing to achieve the desired lift without damage.

6. Hydrate and nourish hair pre- and post-treatment:
Hydrating and nourishing hair before and after bleaching supports hair health. Using deep conditioning treatments prior helps to strengthen hair, while post-bleaching conditioner aids in recovery. The International Journal of Trichology highlights the benefits of maintaining hair’s moisture balance to prevent damage.

7. Consult a professional if unsure:
Consulting a professional is advisable for those inexperienced with bleaching techniques. Professional stylists have the training and expertise to handle bleach safely. According to the American Board of Certified Haircolorists, a well-trained stylist can customize the process based on hair type and desired results.

8. Protect skin and surrounding areas:
Protecting the skin and surrounding areas with petroleum jelly or barrier cream prevents chemical burns. Skin irritation from bleach can occur if it comes into contact during the application. Many professionals recommend applying a thin layer of a protective product along the hairline.

Taking these precautions ensures a safer and more successful hair bleaching experience.

What Aftercare Is Essential for Maintaining Bleached Hair?

Maintaining bleached hair requires specific aftercare to ensure its health and vitality. Essential aftercare includes hydration, protection, and specialized products.

Main Points of Aftercare for Bleached Hair:
1. Hydrating conditioners and masks
2. Sulfate-free shampoos
3. UV protection
4. Heat protection
5. Regular trims
6. Avoiding chlorine and saltwater

To delve deeper into each aspect of aftercare, here is a detailed exploration of essential practices for maintaining bleached hair.

Hydrating Conditioners and Masks: Using hydrating conditioners and masks is vital. Hydration replenishes moisture lost during the bleaching process. It helps to strengthen hair and prevent dryness, which can lead to breakage. Look for products containing ingredients like argan oil or keratin.
Sulfate-Free Shampoos: Sulfate-free shampoos are crucial because they cleanse without stripping natural oils. Traditional shampoos containing sulfates can exacerbate dryness. A milder formula allows for gentle cleansing while preserving moisture. Studies, including one by the American Academy of Dermatology in 2019, support that sulfate-free options are less irritating and more suitable for colored hair.
UV Protection: Protecting bleached hair from UV rays is important. Sun exposure can lead to fading and further damage. Products with UV filters shield the hair from harmful rays. It is advisable to wear hats or scarves when exposed to sunlight for long periods.
Heat Protection: Using heat protection products before styling is essential. Bleached hair is more susceptible to damage from heat tools. A heat protectant spray forms a barrier and minimizes potential damage caused by blow dryers, curling irons, or straighteners. According to a 2020 study published in the Journal of Cosmetic Science, using heat protection can significantly reduce hair damage.
Regular Trims: Regular trims help maintain healthy ends. Bleached hair can develop split ends, making it appear unhealthy. Frequent visits to the salon for minor trims can prevent excessive damage and keep hair looking fresh. Hairstylists recommend trimming every 6-8 weeks for optimal health.
Avoiding Chlorine and Saltwater: Chlorine from pools and saltwater from the ocean can dry out bleached hair and cause color fading. Rinsing hair with fresh water before swimming can create a protective barrier. Additionally, wearing a swim cap can help minimize exposure during activities in chlorinated water.

In conclusion, these aftercare practices can significantly enhance the appearance and health of bleached hair, ensuring it remains vibrant and manageable.

How Can You Sustain the Platinum Look Long-Term?

To sustain the platinum look long-term, proper hair care, regular maintenance, and protecting color-treated hair are essential components.

Proper Hair Care: Use sulfate-free shampoos and conditioners. These products minimize color fading and maintain hair moisture. According to the American Academy of Dermatology, sulfates can strip hair of its natural oils, leading to dryness and increased fade.
Regular Maintenance: Schedule touch-up appointments every 4 to 6 weeks. Regular appointments allow for color retention and prevent noticeable roots. A study from the Journal of Cosmetic Science (Johnson & Smith, 2021) emphasizes that timely touch-ups help maintain vibrancy in color-treated hair.
Protecting Color-Treated Hair: Use leave-in conditioners and UV protectants. These products help shield hair from sun damage and environmental factors. The Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology (Lee et al., 2020) underscores that UV exposure can lead to color degradation.
Avoid Hot Tools: Limit the use of heat styling tools. Excessive heat can damage hair and cause color to fade. The International Journal of Trichology (Kumar et al., 2019) notes that high temperatures can lead to structural damage in hair, affecting its appearance and durability.
Deep Conditioning Treatments: Incorporate deep conditioning products weekly. These treatments replenish moisture and improve hair texture. A study published in the International Journal of Cosmetic Science (Nguyen & Chen, 2020) highlights that regular deep conditioning can significantly enhance hair quality, especially for color-treated hair.

Implementing these strategies will help maintain a vibrant and healthy platinum look over the long term.

What Common Mistakes Should Black Guys Avoid When Bleaching Their Hair?

Black guys should avoid several common mistakes when bleaching their hair to achieve safe and effective results.

Skipping a patch test
Using the wrong bleach formula
Ignoring hair health
Over-processing the hair
Failing to follow up with proper care
Not consulting a professional

These common mistakes highlight the need for careful consideration and informed choices during the hair bleaching process.

Skipping a Patch Test:
Skipping a patch test is a significant mistake when bleaching hair. A patch test helps to check for allergic reactions or sensitivities to the bleach. According to the American Academy of Dermatology, testing a small area can prevent severe allergic reactions. It is recommended that one conduct a patch test 48 hours before using the product on the entire head. Ignoring this step might result in serious skin reactions.
Using the Wrong Bleach Formula:
Using the wrong bleach formula can lead to unsatisfactory results or damage. Different hair types require specific bleach strengths and formulations. For instance, if a product is meant for fine hair but is used on coarse hair, it may not lift color effectively. The choice of a bleach that is not alcohol-free may also dry out the hair, according to hair care expert Salima Hill. Optimal results come from selecting the right bleach based on hair texture and health.
Ignoring Hair Health:
Ignoring hair health before bleaching can have negative consequences. Pre-existing damage can worsen with bleaching, leading to breakage or extensive hair loss. A study from the International Journal of Cosmetic Science indicates that healthy hair withstands the bleaching process better than damaged strands. Therefore, individuals should conduct a deep conditioning treatment and assess their hair’s condition before proceeding with bleach.
Over-Processing the Hair:
Over-processing is a common error that results in hair damage. This occurs when bleach is left on longer than the recommended time or repeated too frequently. According to research by the Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, excessive processing leads to changes in hair structure, making it weak and prone to breakage. Following the manufacturer’s instructions regarding application time is crucial for maintaining hair integrity.
Failing to Follow Up with Proper Care:
Failing to follow up with proper hair care after bleaching can lead to further damage. Using moisturizing and restorative products post-bleach is essential. The American Hair Research Society states that hair can lose moisture during the bleaching process, so incorporating hydrating conditioners is necessary to restore its balance and shine. Regular trims and nourishing treatments can also help maintain healthy hair.
Not Consulting a Professional:
Not consulting a professional is a mistake that can lead to undesirable outcomes. Professionals possess the expertise to choose the right products and techniques tailored to an individual’s hair type. A professional stylist can assess hair condition and recommend the best bleaching method to minimize damage. Their experience can enhance overall results and satisfaction.

By actively considering these factors, individuals can achieve successful and healthy hair bleaching outcomes.

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